Encyclopedia of the Developing World

(Note: Introduction is taken from uncorrected proofs. Changes may be made prior to publication.)

Historically identified by various terms, the “Developing World” has always existed, but it came into vogue as a concept immediately after the close of World War II in 1945. For the next generation the “Third World” was the most commonly used term, followed for the next two decades by the “Underdeveloped World.” Influenced by trade liberalization, globalization, and the policy agenda known as the Washington Consensus, the term “Developing World” came into prominence in the 1980s. In response, at least one professional organization, the Association of Third World Studies, briefly considered changing its name.

The most commonly asked questions about the “Developing World” focus upon the countries and residents that comprise it, the status of its economy, its political and social characteristics, and its cultural components. At the end of World War II analysts identified Africa, Asia, and Latin America as the most underdeveloped global regions. Within each were numerous sub-regions, such as South Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, and Latin America’s Southern Cone. Over time, the Middle East was added to the mix and the regions were further subdivided. Although the Soviet Union and its East European Bloc often demonstrated advances in scientific achievement, industrial output or military hardware, it remained an underdeveloped area in terms of the low quality of life for its inhabitants and the lack of civil and human rights, factors that became glaringly apparent with the end of the Cold War in 1991.

Today’s conventional wisdom suggests that all but the Group of Seven, or G-7, nations and their periphery fall into the so-called “Developing World.” The G-7 is comprised of the world’s seven largest industrial nations: United States, Japan, Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and Canada, though the industrialized world also includes the other Western European nations, Australia, and New Zealand. By the 1990s Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan became prosperous nations. The inclusion of the latter three countries suggests that an economic definition of the “Developing World” remains too simplified.

Beyond economic development, analysts came to consider the extent of public participation in the political process. How democratic and representative of its people is any given government? Are human and civil rights secured and protected? What is the availability of basic human services such as education and health care? Are there environmental protections? The assumption is that developed nations are representative democracies where the rights of people are guaranteed, basic human needs are satisfied, and the environment secured from various forms of pollution. Although several of the developed nations fall short in some of these categories, the absence of most is a characteristic of the “Developing World.”

The logo map used in the publications of the Association of Third World Studies substantiates the given economic, political, and social definitions of the “Developing World.” The G-7 nations and its periphery are absent from that map.

The assistance programs sponsored by the developed world since 1945 reflect the changing definition of the “Developing World.” Immediately after World War II, assistance focused upon improvement in infrastructure – roads, ports, electricity, water supplies, and the like – to provide for increased opportunities to export primary products, including raw materials. By the late 1950s and into the early 1960s, assistance programs shifted direction. The end of colonialism, the independence of India and Indonesia, the emergence of new and independent nations in Africa, and Fidel Castro’s Revolution in Cuba brought an awareness of the need to focus upon economic opportunities for the general population, improvement in quality of life, and the right of a nation’s people to political participation and civil and human rights. These goals remained the objectives of programs sponsored by government and non-government organizations that continued into the 1980s when world politics again shifted. Identified best by the Washington Consensus, a set of suggested reforms set forth for Latin America by the economist John Williamson in 1989, this change in policy by developed nations cut back on their international assistance programs and, instead, called upon the nations of the “Developing World” to remove their protective barriers against foreign investment, provide for the privatization of state owned industries and for increased exports, particularly of so-called niche products. As they invited developing nations to enter the global arena, developed nations increased their pressure on developing nations to democratize the political process, protect civil and human rights, and encourage environmentalism. International agreements since the 1980s often contain provisos for the implementation of plans to address these human needs.

Despite the good intentions, the “Developing World” persists. Poverty, with its concomitant shortcomings in education, health care, housing, and other basic human needs, remains a reality for a disproportionate number of the world’s inhabitants. Political democracy and civil and human rights are not universally guaranteed. And environmental pollution continues to go unchecked, taking its most devastating toll upon the “Developing World.”

As the twenty first century dawned, many analysts queried the advisability of imposing the developed world’s criteria for modernization upon the “Developing World.” The histories of the world’s regions varied with their own political experiences, their own ethnic and religious conflicts, and their political, religious, and social traditions that resist and in some cases, outright defy modernization as envisioned by the developed world.

The Encyclopedia of the Developing World provides a ready reference work for understanding the issues that affect approximately three quarters of the globe’s residents. The Encyclopedia is unique because of its focus upon the post 1945 period when the old colonial structures in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East crumbled and elsewhere, as in China, Japan, and Latin America the traditional elite structure has been replaced by something new. During the same time period the “Developing World” began to demand a greater share of world’s economy and an improvement in quality of life, along with social justice, political participation and individual liberties.

How to Use This Book

The Encyclopedia of the Developing World is composed of over 800 free-standing entries of 500 to 5000 words in length. They range from factual narratives, such as country descriptions and biographies, to thematic interpretations and analytical discussions of timely topics like global trading patterns, and a combination of all three, such as overview articles on the history and economic development of a particular region. As far as possible, the encyclopedia covers the history, economic development, and politics of the developing world from 1945 to the present, providing the reader with a reliable, up-to-date view of the current state of scholarship on the developing world.

Perhaps the most significant feature of the encyclopedia is the easily accessible A to Z format. Cross-referencing in the form of See Alsos at the end of most entries refer the reader to other related entries. Each article contains a list of References and Further Reading, including sources used by the writer and editor as well as additional items that may be of interest to the reader. Most books or articles cited are easily available through interlibrary loan services in libraries. Blind Entries direct readers to essays listed under another title. For example, the blind entry “World Bank” refers the reader to the article entitled with that institution’s official name, “International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.” A thorough, analytical index complements the accessibility of the entries, easing the reader’s entry into the wealth of information provided. A thematic list of entries is also included to assist readers with research in particular subjects.

Each country has a stand-alone entry, but also is included in larger regional studies. For example, discussion of Chile can be found under the country’s entry, but its place in regional matters can be found in “Southern Cone (Latin America): History and Economic Development”; “Southern Cone (Latin America): International Relations”; and “Ethnic Conflicts: Southern Cone (Latin America).” There are stand alone entries for important individuals, like Jomo Kenyatta, but for context readers should also refer to the country entry on Kenya and the topical entries, such as “Colonialism: History” and “Colonialism: Legacies,” to more fully understand his philosophy and objectives. The discussion of Development History and Theory is augmented by the entry “Development, Measures of.” Both are enhanced by the discussions of the various economic models: capitalist, communist, socialist, and so on. The cross-references will lead readers from stop to stop on such paths throughout the encyclopedia, and the index is another good starting place to find the connected discussions.

A total of 251 authors have contributed the entries to this encyclopedia. They are based around the world, in both developing and developed nations, including Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cameroon, Canada, China, Egypt, France, Germany, Hungary, India, Israel, Japan, Kenya, Malaysia, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, the Philippines, Poland, Romania, Singapore, South Africa, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Zimbabwe. In keeping with the global and interdisciplinary nature of this encyclopedia, contributors represent a variety of fields, among them finance, religion, anthropology, geography, environmental science, and law, with subspecialties such as global business, human rights, ethics, and refugee studies. The expertise of a wide-ranging and diverse group of contributors will provide the reader with a broad-based overview of issues, events, and theories of the developing world.

Acknowledgments

Several people helped to bring this work to its completion. A special thanks goes to Lorraine Murray of Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, who kindly provided me the opportunity to undertake this project and to Mark L. Georgiev at the Taylor and Francis imprint Routledge, for directing its completion following Routledge’s acquisition of the project from Fitzroy Dearborn. The guidance offered by the Board of Advisors – Ade Adefuye, Akwasi B. Assensoh, Nader Entessar, Stephen Fischer-Galati, Alexander Gungov, Harold Isaacs, Gary Kline, Paul Magnarella, John Mukum Mbaku, AlojzyZ. Nowak, Philip Oxhorn, Paul A. Rodell, Houman Sadri, Barbara Tenenbaum and Pamela A. Zeiser - ensured the Encyclopedia’s comprehensiveness. The expertise of each author made possible the accuracy and completeness of the 762 entries. The editorial efforts by Mark O’Malley and particularly Rachel Granfield made this a more readable work. And as always, Yvonne offered the encouragement, support and understanding that only a wife could. This work is dedicated to her.

Thomas M. Leonard